Introduction to Ethics: Definition of ethics, morality, values, and principles

Explanation of ethics, morality, values, and principles

Ethics

Ethics, as a field of philosophical inquiry, is broadly concerned with questions about the nature of moral judgement and theories of right action. Simon Blackburn’s Ethics: A Very Short Introduction primarily aims to address the widespread apprehension that "ethical claims are a kind of sham", exploring this through concepts such as relativism, scepticism, and nihilism.

More generally, ethics refers to the "moral or ethical environment". This environment is described as:

• The surrounding climate of ideas about how to live.
• It determines what we find acceptable or unacceptable, admirable or contemptible.
• It shapes our understanding of when things are going well and when they are going badly.
• It establishes our conception of what is due to us, and what is due from us, as we relate to others.
• It shapes our emotional responses, influencing what causes pride, shame, anger, or gratitude, and what can be forgiven.
• It provides our standards of behaviour.

Philosophical ethics, in particular, aims to "understand the springs of motivation, reason, and feeling that move us" and "the networks of rules or ‘norms’ that sustain our lives". It is an "enterprise of self-knowledge". The sources emphasise that "human beings are ethical animals" because they inherently "grade and evaluate, and compare and admire, and claim and justify". Ethics is not merely an external "institution" or "concealed conspiracy," but is fundamental to human living itself, as "for human beings, there is no living without standards of living".

Morality

While often used interchangeably with 'ethics,' 'morality' in the sources refers more directly to the set of rules, codes, or practices governing conduct within a society or for an individual. It is commonly believed to be "far more important to be good than to be clever or knowledgeable". Key aspects of morality include:

• Basic requirements: Such as not harming others without good reason, and refraining from major acts of dishonesty.
• A "seamless web with mutually dependent parts": Meaning its normative and metaethical elements are intertwined.
• Practical nature: Moral awareness is seen as a fundamental requirement for leading a good life.
• Not optional: Most people do not view moral awareness as a minor accomplishment.
• Grounded in reason: Most people making moral judgements see them as stating truths based on reasons, which they hope will be persuasive to others.
• Universal core: Across human societies, there is a fundamental need for "some institution of property," "some norm governing truth-telling," "some conception of promise-giving," and "some standards restraining violence and killing". Societies also require "some devices for regulating sexual expression," and "some sense of what is appropriate by way of treating strangers, or minorities, or children, or the aged, or the handicapped".
• Challenges to morality: The sources discuss various "threats" to ethics, including the "death of God" (suggesting no lawgiver, therefore no law), and "moral nihilism," which claims "there are in fact no moral rights, no moral obligations, and that nothing is morally better or worse than anything else".

Values

Values represent what is considered good, desirable, or important within an ethical framework or society. They are intrinsically linked to the ethical environment.

• Shape the ethical climate: Our values determine what is considered acceptable, admirable, or contemptible.
• Basis for justification: They provide the underlying justification for social systems, even those that are exploitative. For instance, racists and sexists "always have to tell themselves a story that justifies their system," which is sustained by the prevailing ethical climate.
• Controversial origins: The sources explore whether values are objective, mind-independent features of reality ("moral realism") or merely "projections onto the world [of] our attitudes, preferences, needs or desires" ("projectivism"). Simon Blackburn’s "quasi-realism" suggests that while moral judgments might be projections of our attitudes, this doesn't invalidate the practice of moral judgment, allowing us to still judge moral utterances as true or false within our ethical framework.
• Relativism concerning values: Moral relativism, as discussed, posits that different moral systems and "values" can all be considered "true" for particular cultures or individuals, and that there is "no one moral code which applies to everyone". This often leads to the idea that "all moral convictions are only opinions".
• Debate over objectivity: The "fact–value distinction" highlights the puzzle of whether "moral commitments answer to states of the world" or whether "value possibly be objective". An Aristotelian perspective, however, suggests that values can be "objective and naturalistic" by linking them to human function and flourishing.
• Fundamental values: Despite disagreements, some values are presented as universally acknowledged, such as happiness being preferable to misery, and dignity being better than humiliation. There is also a recognition of "increased sensitivity to the environment, to sexual difference, to gender, to people different from ourselves in a whole variety of ways" as "small, hard-won, fragile, but undeniable causes of pride".

Principles

Principles in ethics are general rules or fundamental beliefs that guide behaviour and moral judgements. They are distinct from specific moral decisions but underpin common positions on various issues.

• Role in moral theory: Moral philosophy explores "theories of right action," which are general principles meant to apply to a range of moral problems.
• Kantian principles: Immanuel Kant's ethics centres on the "categorical imperative," which dictates universally binding moral principles derived from reason alone. This includes the "Formula of Universal Law" (acting only on maxims that could be willed as universal law) and the "Formula of Humanity" (treating humanity never merely as a means but always as an end). Kant believed that moral motivation comes from "respect for a rule" or "duty," not desire.
• Utilitarian principles: Utilitarianism is based on the "principle of utility," also known as the "greatest happiness principle," which states that "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote pleasure or happiness". It is a consequentialist theory, meaning actions are judged by their outcomes. Indirect utilitarianism further suggests that moral rules and rights are justified by their overall impact on general happiness.
• Deontological principles: These refer to "duty-based" theories, where the wrongness of an act comes from its inherent nature (e.g., lying or murder) rather than its consequences. The distinction between "killing and letting die" often fits a deontological mindset.
• Contractualist principles: Morality is viewed as a system of principles that "rational people could agree to, because it works to their mutual advantage". John Rawls's "original position" and "veil of ignorance" are theoretical devices to determine principles of justice, such as the "difference principle".
• Practical application: Principles help classify individual acts and make their rightness or wrongness intelligible and explicable. For instance, concepts like justice, kindness, and honesty help evaluate actions.
• Challenges to principles: Some moral views, particularly conservative ones, may present themselves as "founded in something distinctive – perhaps even something sacred – and not derivable from any general theory". There is also a recognition that "extreme demands" from certain ethical principles (e.g., absolute prohibition on lying, limitless charity) can lead to their rejection as "impractical".

 Blackburn: Fear, Guilt, Pride, Respect | Ethics: A Very Short Introduction

Simon Blackburn, as the author of Ethics: A Very Short Introduction, explores various fundamental concepts and emotional responses within the ethical environment, including fear, guilt, pride, and respect. His work aims to confront what he believes "really bothers people about the subject," primarily "the many causes we have to fear that ethical claims are a kind of sham".

Blackburn discusses these concepts in the following ways:

• Fear:

  • He introduces his book by highlighting the prevalent fear that ethical claims are a kind of sham, associating this apprehension with notions like relativism, scepticism, and nihilism. These ideas can "seep into the moral environment," changing expectations and often leading to cynicism and paralysis.
  • Blackburn also illustrates how societies can be permeated by fear, citing the Nazi climate's fear for racial purity, which allowed for horrifying events like the Holocaust.
  • When discussing the Euthyphro dilemma, he notes Kant's argument that genuine moral motivation is corrupted if actions are performed out of fear of punishment or other incentives, rather than out of respect for the moral law.
  • He also points to the fear that, if suicide or euthanasia were legitimate options, vulnerable individuals might be pressured to accept them by others who stand to benefit from their death. This highlights a societal fear of negative consequences arising from allowing certain practices.

• Guilt:

  • Blackburn explains that the ethical environment profoundly shapes our emotional responses, including our sense of guilt and shame. These are continuously adjusted by events and our relationships with others.
  • He discusses how powerful institutions, such as the Church, can use the control of people's sense of shame and guilt as an instrument of power, even when individual clerics are sincerely concerned about parishioners' sins.
  • Blackburn observes a human tendency to "relentlessly take responsibility," stating that "we would prefer to be guilty than unlucky," suggesting that people often choose to feel guilt rather than acknowledge the role of luck in their moral standing.
  • The problem of free will and determinism also touches upon guilt, as the idea that actions are causally determined challenges the basis of moral responsibility and, by extension, blame and guilt. He also notes instances where people may have guilt feelings (e.g., about sex) that they consciously judge as irrational, describing this as internal conflict.

• Pride:

  • Pride is identified as one of the emotional responses determined by the ethical environment. Individuals seek lives that enable them to appear admirable and often wish to conceal their weaknesses, indicating a concern for how they are perceived.
  • Blackburn points out that the realization that human standards of conduct are of "our own making" and that we "legislate them for ourselves" can "energize us to defend ourselves" and be a source of pride, rather than leading to corrosive scepticism.
  • He also suggests that increased societal sensitivity to environmental issues, sexual difference, and gender equality can be seen as "small, hard-won, fragile, but undeniable causes of pride".
  • From a Kantian perspective, Blackburn notes that our capacity to act in accordance with moral imperatives gives us a "fundamental title to respect and self-respect," and that "we are proud of our reasonings". The utility of the "institution" of promise-keeping, for example, gives a "boost to our respect for the norms" and is "a point we can be proud of".

• Respect:

  • The ethical environment shapes our understanding of what is "due to us, and what is due from us, as we relate to others," which is foundational to the concept of respect.
  • Blackburn contrasts the "godlike vision" of an unchallengeable leader (as in the Nazi climate) with an ethical climate that would foster mutual respect.
  • He highlights Plato's Euthyphro dilemma, arguing that God's commands are moral because they are inherently right, not simply because God commands them. True virtue, in this context (and as interpreted by Kant), involves acting out of respect for a rule itself, rather than out of fear or self-interest.
  • Respect for persons is a crucial Kantian theme, where rational beings are to be treated as "ends in themselves," never merely as means. This entails acknowledging their autonomy and offering reasons to which they can assent. Blackburn sees this as a core ethical demand that is perhaps "more practicable than remembering to love each other".
  • The United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, cited by Blackburn, explicitly states that "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood," underpinning a universal demand for respect and non-discrimination.
  • In the context of relativism and multiculturalism, Blackburn argues that opposing oppressive practices (e.g., female genital mutilation) in the name of universal human rights is not simply "imposing" Western standards but often involves "cooperating with the oppressed and supporting their emancipation," implying a universal demand for respect for human dignity.
  • He suggests that the act of presenting reasons for one's actions implies a hope for others to recognize their permissibility, thereby seeking "justification from the common point of view". A lack of concern for this common point of view indicates a failure to show respect for others' perspectives.
  • Blackburn ultimately asserts that "dignity is better than humiliation" and that the "attempt to find a common point of view is better than manipulative contempt for it". He notes that increased societal sensitivity to difference is a cause for pride, reflecting a growth in respect for diverse individuals and groups.

Blackburn's overall metaethical stance, known as quasi-realism, suggests that while moral judgments might be projections of our attitudes (rather than reflecting mind-independent moral facts), this does not mean they are erroneous or baseless. Instead, our "projected moral sensibilities" allow us to judge moral utterances as true or false within our ethical framework, emphasizing the deep-seated and indispensable nature of these moral sentiments and practices in human life.

Note: The above content is extracted from Ethics: A Very Short Introduction by Simon Blackburn with the help of Google's Notebook LM

Distinction: Personal Belief and Moral Reasoning | Views of Dr. Piers Benn and Simon Blackburn

 Ethics: Personal Beliefs and Moral Values

The distinction between personal beliefs and moral reasoning is a recurring theme in "Ethics: A Very Short Introduction by Simon Blackburn and Ethics by Dr. Piers Benn, which highlight that while personal feelings and cultural influences often shape individual moral views, moral reasoning aims for a more objective and universal foundation.

Personal Beliefs and Opinions

• Subjective and Taste-like: Personal moral convictions can be seen as "judgements of personal taste", similar to preferring a colour like blue or green, where it would be senseless to argue whose taste is more "correct". When people express a moral opinion, they sometimes qualify it as "just an opinion", implying it is no more correct than an opposing view.

• Rooted in Feelings/Passions: Personal moral commitments are often intimately linked to "attitudes, preferences, needs or desires" or "passions" and "sentiments". They can be driven by "emotive reaction". Hume famously argued that "Reason is, and ought only to be, the slave of the passions", meaning reason can inform us of facts but cannot form our fundamental desires or motivations.
• Hume, D. A treatise of human nature (1739–40) L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.) (Oxford: Clarendon Press,1978).
• 
  
• Psychologically Influenced: People's views are often "led by their feelings, or caused by God or their cultural environment". Our moral and political commitments are "partly shaped by factors we tend not to acknowledge", such as cultural heritage and personal interests. Personal biases, perhaps originating in "personal weaknesses", can lead to unjust moral judgements.

• Not Necessarily Justified: The fact that one holds a belief or intuition, or that it "seems" true to them, does not inherently justify it.

• "Conversation-Stopper": The response "Well, that's just your opinion" often serves as a "conversation-stopper" rather than a genuine move in ethical discussion, as it avoids engaging with reasons or counter-reasons.

Moral Reasoning

• Based on Reasons and Justification: Moral judgements are typically "based upon reasons" which people "often hope will seem persuasive to others". Moral deliberation involves "weighing up reasons", and moral convictions are seen as stating "truths which can, however crudely, be based upon reasons". Moral thinking "aims at something", striving to reach "good reasons" that are not merely determined by present desires or beliefs.

• Objective and Universal Aim: Moral reasoning strives for "objective moral truths or binding principles". It seeks to determine if a moral view is "correct, or objectively justified". Kant argued that morality is "objective, in the sense that it makes rationally inescapable demands which do not depend for their validity upon desires or opinions that people just happen to have".

 I.Kan t,Groundwork of themetaphysicof morals, trans. H.J. Paton(London: Harper andRow,1964)

• Transcending Subjectivity: Unlike judgements of taste, moral judgements generally involve taking stances on others' moral judgements, including praise and condemnation. It involves moving from a "private and particular situation" to a "common point of view".

• Logical Consistency and Rationality: A crucial aspect of moral reasoning is the avoidance of "self-contradiction" and "inconsistencies" in moral positions. Principles of "universalizability" mean that "ought" judgements commit the speaker to making the "same ought judgement in all circumstances that share the same universal features". Bad moral convictions are often a result of "lazy and muddled thought".

• Distinction from Causes: Moral reasoning involves providing justifications ("normative" sense of "because") rather than mere causal explanations for actions. While personal desires can cause actions, moral reasons aim to provide objective justification for actions, even if they don't align with an agent's current desires.

• Intellectual Endeavour: Ethical thinking is considered an "intellectual operation", involving "step-by-step inference, the framing and testing of hypotheses, the drawing of analogies and the formulation of general principles". It requires the ability to "see through sophistical rhetoric, to detect fallacies, to resist purely emotional appeals and to avoid self-contradiction".

• "Reasons" (Capital R): Some philosophers, notably Kant, seek "Reasons" (with a capital R) which everyone "must acknowledge to be a reason, independently of their sympathies and inclinations". These Reasons would have "apodictic force", binding all rational agents and implying that their very "rationality is in jeopardy" if ignored. This contrasts with "reasons" (small r) that depend on shared sympathies.

In essence, while personal beliefs stem from subjective feelings, cultural influences, and individual experiences, moral reasoning attempts to move beyond these to establish universally defensible principles and justifications for moral claims, often through logical coherence, impartiality, and an appeal to what rational agents ought to do rather than merely what they desire or feel.

Note: This distinction is extracted from the said two books with Google's AI-powered tool NotebookLM.

Further Reading:

Benn, Piers. Ethics. Routledge, 1997.

Blackburn, Simon. Ethics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2021.

Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature. Edited by L.A. Selby-Bigge, Clarendon Press, 1978.

Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Translated by H.J. Paton, Harper and Row, 1964.

Designing the Book Cover: Robinson Crusoe | An Activity

 

Designing Your Robinson Crusoe Book Cover

This activity challenges you to create a new, compelling cover for Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Instead of simply depicting Crusoe on a beach, your design must visually represent a central theme from the novel. Think deeply about the story's core messages!

Instructions for Students:

1. Choose Your Theme: Select ONE key theme from Robinson Crusoe that you want to highlight. Some themes to consider are:

   • Loneliness/Isolation: The profound impact of being alone for so long.

   • Ingenuity/Resourcefulness: Crusoe's ability to survive and thrive through his own cleverness.

   • Colonialism/Mastery: Crusoe's imposition of his will and culture on the island and its inhabitants.

   • Faith/Providence: The role of religion and divine intervention in Crusoe's journey.

   • The Power of Nature: The overwhelming and sometimes harsh influence of the natural world.

2. Brainstorm Visuals: Once you've chosen your theme, think about symbols, colors, imagery, or even abstract concepts that could represent it visually. How can you show this theme without literally drawing Crusoe on a beach?

3. Craft Your AI Prompt: You will use a text-to-image AI (like Ideogram, Leonardo, DALL-E, Stable Diffusion, or others) to generate your cover. Your prompt should describe the visual elements you want to see, focusing on your chosen theme. Be specific about style, colors, and mood.

   • Example AI Prompt (Focusing on "Ingenuity/Resourcefulness"):

     "A detailed, rustic illustration of various improvised tools (axe made from stone, basket woven from reeds, crude pottery) arranged meticulously, perhaps with a faint blueprint or schematic overlay. Earthy tones, focused on the textures of natural materials. The feeling should be one of clever survival and transformation. Style: realistic illustration with a touch of old-world engraving."

   • Breakdown of the Example Prompt:

     • "detailed, rustic illustration": Specifies the overall artistic style.

     • "various improvised tools (axe made from stone, basket woven from reeds, crude pottery)": Describes the main subjects and directly relates to ingenuity.

     • "arranged meticulously, perhaps with a faint blueprint or schematic overlay": Adds an element of design and planning, further emphasizing resourcefulness.

     • "Earthy tones, focused on the textures of natural materials": Sets the color palette and highlights the handmade nature of the items.

     • "The feeling should be one of clever survival and transformation": Conveys the desired mood and reinforces the theme.

     • "Style: realistic illustration with a touch of old-world engraving": Provides more specific artistic direction for the AI.

4. Generate Your Cover: Input your prompt into your chosen AI tool and generate several options. Select the one that best represents your theme.

5. Write Your Back Cover Paragraph: On the back of your generated book cover image (or in a separate document), write a short paragraph (3-5 sentences) explaining your artistic choices.

   • Clearly state the key theme you are trying to highlight.

   • Explain why you chose the specific imagery, colors, and style.

   • Describe how your design visually represents that aspect of the story.

   • Example Back Cover Paragraph (for the "Ingenuity" theme):

     "My cover for Robinson Crusoe focuses on the theme of ingenuity and resourcefulness. Instead of showing Crusoe himself, I chose to illustrate the array of improvised tools and crafts he creates. The detailed, rustic depiction of the stone axe, woven basket, and pottery, overlaid with subtle design elements, symbolizes his remarkable ability to adapt, innovate, and transform the raw island materials into the means of his survival. The earthy tones reflect the natural environment and the practical, grounded nature of his accomplishments."